Napoleon’s Egyptian Campaign: A Tale of Glory and Disaster

Napoleon Bonaparte is widely regarded as one of the greatest military commanders in history.

His campaigns across Europe and beyond shaped the 19th century and influenced the modern world.

But one of his most ambitious and controversial ventures was his invasion of Egypt in 1798, which aimed to disrupt British trade, expand French influence, and uncover the secrets of an ancient civilization.

A Scientific and Military Expedition

Napoleon was not only a brilliant general, but also a visionary leader who had a keen interest in the arts and sciences.

He believed that Egypt was the cradle of civilization and that its monuments, hieroglyphs, and culture held the keys to understanding the origins of humanity.

He also saw Egypt as a strategic location to challenge British dominance in the Mediterranean and India and to establish a French presence in the Middle East.

To achieve these goals, Napoleon assembled a large army of 35,000 soldiers, as well as a group of more than 160 scholars and artists, known as the Commission of the Sciences and Arts of Egypt.

This commission included experts in various fields, such as mathematics, astronomy, geography, botany, zoology, medicine, engineering, archaeology, and linguistics.

Their mission was to study and document every aspect of Egypt, from its natural history to its ancient and modern society.

A Series of Victories and Defeats

The French expedition landed near Alexandria in July 1798 and quickly captured the city.

They then marched towards Cairo, where they faced the local rulers, the Mamluks, who controlled Egypt as part of the Ottoman Empire.

The French army won a decisive victory at the Battle of the Pyramids, also known as the Battle of Embabeh, on July 21, 1798.

Napoleon famously addressed his troops before the battle, saying: "Soldiers, from the summit of these pyramids, forty centuries look down upon you."

However, the French triumph was short-lived, as the British navy, led by Admiral Horatio Nelson, destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile, also known as the Battle of Aboukir Bay, on August 1, 1798.

This effectively cut off Napoleon and his army from France and left them isolated and vulnerable in Egypt.

The British also allied with the Ottomans and other local powers to oppose the French occupation.

Napoleon tried to consolidate his position in Egypt by suppressing revolts, establishing a new administration, and launching campaigns to secure the Nile Valley and the Sinai Peninsula.

He also attempted to win the hearts and minds of the Egyptians by respecting their religion, culture, and customs, and by presenting himself as a liberator from the Mamluk oppression.

He even claimed to be a descendant of the ancient pharaohs and a follower of Islam.

However, Napoleon's efforts were not enough to overcome the hostility and resistance of the Egyptians and their allies.

He also faced difficulties within his own army, which suffered from disease, desertion, and discontent.

In 1799, he decided to abandon Egypt and return to France, leaving his second-in-command, General Jean-Baptiste Kléber, in charge.

Kléber was assassinated in 1800, and the French forces eventually surrendered in 1801, after a series of defeats and negotiations.

A Legacy of Discovery and Destruction

Despite the failure of the military campaign, the French expedition left a lasting impact on Egypt and the world. The scientific and artistic commission produced a monumental work, known as the Description of Egypt, which consisted of 23 volumes of text and illustrations, covering every aspect of Egyptian geography, history, culture, and society.

The commission also made several discoveries, such as the Rosetta Stone, which enabled the decipherment of the hieroglyphs, and the ruins of ancient cities, such as Thebes and Memphis.

However, the French expedition also caused significant damage and loss to Egypt's heritage and environment. The French soldiers plundered and vandalized many monuments, artifacts, and manuscripts, and some of them were shipped to France or sold to collectors. The French also introduced invasive species, such as the water hyacinth, which harmed the native flora and fauna of the Nile.

The French occupation also triggered political and social changes in Egypt, which led to the rise of a new dynasty, the Muhammad Ali Pasha, and the emergence of a nationalist movement.

Napoleon's Egyptian campaign was a complex and contradictory episode in history, which combined glory and disaster, enlightenment and exploitation, and fascination and frustration.

It was a testament to Napoleon's genius and ambition, as well as his hubris and miscalculation.

It was also a turning point for Egypt and the world, which opened a new chapter in the relations between the East and the West.

Cairo's Defiance: The 1798 Revolt Against Napoleon's Occupation

Prelude to the Revolt

In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led the French army into Egypt, swiftly capturing and occupying Alexandria and Cairo.

However, the French occupation was not welcomed by the local population.

The heavy taxes imposed by the invading forces stirred discontent among the citizens of Cairo.

The Revolt Unfolds

On 21 October 1798, the local chiefs, encouraged by the British naval victories and driven by their displeasure at the occupying forces, led an uprising against the French.

The revolt began in Old Cairo, where the city's population began spreading weapons around to one another and fortifying strongpoints, especially at the Al-Azhar Mosque.